This article explores the scientific evidence supporting the theological concept that God designed human nervous systems to co-regulate with one another, a notion biblically referred to as “bearing one another’s burdens.” Through a review of recent studies in neuroscience and psychology, this article demonstrates how empathic care and touch can reduce fear, overwhelm, and pain perception, thus providing a neurobiological basis for the therapeutic benefits of compassionate social interactions.
The concept of “bearing one another’s burdens,” as articulated in the Bible (Galatians 6:2), emphasizes the importance of mutual support and empathy in human relationships. Recent advances in neuroscience provide compelling evidence that our nervous systems are indeed designed to co-regulate with each other. This article reviews key findings from various studies to elucidate how empathic care and touch can mitigate fear, reduce the experience of overwhelm, and alleviate pain, highlighting the neurobiological mechanisms underpinning these effects.
Modić Stanke and Ivanec (2010) demonstrated that the mere presence of others does not necessarily influence pain perception unless the interaction is supportive. This aligns with Tracy (2017) and Mazza (2023) who found that the quality of a relationship plays crucial role in the effectiveness of social support in reducing pain perception and physiological arousal. Master et al. (2009), however, found that viewing photographs of romantic partners significantly reduced pain ratings, comparable to the effects of holding the partner’s hand. These findings suggest that both physical and mental representations of high quality social support can alleviate pain by engaging the brain’s reward systems and reducing activity in pain-processing regions.
López-Solà et al. (2019) found that social touch, such as handholding, reduces pain intensity and unpleasantness by decreasing activation in the Neurologic Pain Signature and enhancing connectivity with somatosensory and default mode regions. This indicates that touch not only modulates pain processing but also engages broader emotional and cognitive networks, promoting overall well-being.
Hornstein and Eisenberger (2018) identified that social-support figures act as “prepared safety stimuli,” reducing fear responses and enhancing fear extinction. This is mediated by increased activity in the ventromedial prefrontal cortex, which inhibits threat-responsive areas like the amygdala. Such mechanisms highlight the role of social support in diminishing acute experiences of threat and pain, underscoring the importance of empathic relationships in stress regulation.
Goldstein et al. (2018) showed that holding a romantic partner’s hand during pain increases brain-to-brain coupling, particularly in the alpha-mu band, correlating with greater pain relief. This neural synchronization reflects the shared emotional and physiological states between partners, facilitating empathy and mutual support, which are crucial for pain alleviation.
Peters (2015) emphasized the role of emotions and cognitive processes in pain perception. Positive emotions and optimism can reduce pain sensitivity, while negative emotions like anxiety and depression exacerbate it. This suggests that fostering positive social interactions and emotional states can be beneficial for pain management.
Holt-Lunstad et al. (2010) conducted a meta-analytic review, finding that individuals with strong social relationships had a 50% increased likelihood of survival compared to those with weaker social ties. This profound impact of social interactions on health supports the idea that our nervous systems are inherently designed for co-regulation through social bonds and empathy.
Integrating social support into clinical settings can enhance patient outcomes by leveraging the analgesic and stress-reducing effects of empathic care and touch. Non-pharmacological interventions, such as listening to a loved one’s voice (Sheykhasadi et al., 2019) or viewing pictures of romantic partners (Younger et al., 2010), can provide significant pain relief and emotional comfort, demonstrating the practical benefits of social support in medical contexts.
The benefits of social support, particularly in the context of emotionally intimate relationships, extend beyond romantic partnerships. Research involving romantic partners and same-sex supportive friends demonstrates that the strength of relational intimacy and connection significantly influences the physiological and psychological experiences of pain and suffering. This discussion highlights how these relationships provide profound support, fundamentally altering the perception and impact of pain.
Research has consistently shown that romantic partners can provide significant pain relief through empathic care and touch. Studies such as those by Master et al. (2009) and Goldstein et al. (2018) have highlighted that holding hands, viewing a partner’s photograph, or receiving supportive touch from a romantic partner reduces pain perception and activates neural reward systems. These interactions decrease activity in pain-related brain areas while enhancing physiological synchrony between partners, demonstrating the powerful analgesic effects of romantic support.
While romantic partners are often the focus, same-sex supportive friends also play a crucial role in pain modulation. Studies indicate that the presence and support of close friends can significantly reduce pain and stress responses. For example, Tracy, L. M. (2017) found that the mere presence of supportive friends during pain-inducing tasks can increase pain tolerance and reduce perceived pain intensity. These findings suggest that close friendships, characterized by trust and empathy, can provide similar benefits to those observed in romantic relationships.
The strength of the relationship bond and the level of emotional intimacy are critical factors influencing the effectiveness of social support. Research by Hornstein and Eisenberger (2018) demonstrated that social-support figures act as “prepared safety stimuli,” reducing fear and enhancing pain relief. The quality of the relationship, including factors such as trust, empathy, and emotional closeness, significantly impacts the degree of physiological and psychological support provided. High-quality relationships lead to greater reductions in pain-related neural activation and increased activation in brain regions associated with safety and reward.
Physiological Synchrony: Studies have shown that close friends can achieve physiological synchrony, similar to that observed in romantic partners. This synchrony, measured through heart rate and skin conductance, correlates with reduced pain perception and increased emotional comfort (Goldstein et al., 2018).
Empathy and Emotional Support: Friends who exhibit high levels of empathy can significantly reduce the experience of pain in their peers. Empathic interactions enhance feelings of safety and reduce the emotional impact of pain, leading to lower pain intensity and improved coping mechanisms (Platow, 2007).
Activation of Neural Reward Systems: Positive social interactions with close friends activate neural reward pathways, similar to those engaged by romantic partners. This activation helps to mitigate the perception of pain and stress, providing emotional and physiological relief (Younger et al., 2010).
The findings underscore the importance of fostering strong, emotionally intimate relationships, such as those found in the body of Christ, to enhance pain management and emotional well-being. In clinical settings, encouraging patients to maintain and strengthen their social bonds can provide substantial benefits, reducing the reliance on pharmacological interventions and improving overall quality of life.
The convergence of neuroscience and theology provides a compelling framework for understanding how human nervous systems are designed to co-regulate through empathic care and touch. By bearing one another’s burdens, we can reduce fear, overwhelm, and pain, bringing God’s comfort to others through compassionate love. These findings underscore the importance of fostering supportive and empathetic relationships to enhance both mental and physical health.
Summary of 26 studies relevant to the neuroscience of bearing one another’s burdens.
Modić Stanke, K., & Ivanec, D. (2010). Social context of pain perception: the role of other people’s presence and physical distance. Review of psychology, 17(1), 69-74.
https://hrcak.srce.hr/file/105205
The study concludes that the mere presence of others, without any active support or interaction, does not necessarily influence pain perception. There was no difference in pain measures between when participants were alone and when they were accompanied by an observer. In fact, as shown in still face experiments, an unengaged observer actually intensifies distress.
Master, S. L., Eisenberger, N. I., Taylor, S. E., Naliboff, B. D., Shirinyan, D., & Lieberman, M. D. (2009). A picture’s worth: Partner photographs reduce experimentally induced pain. Psychological science, 20(11), 1316-1318.
The study confirms that social support is associated with reduced pain experience across various domains. Participants who received interactive support during a cold pressor task reported less pain than those who were alone or engaged in nonsupportive interactions.
Mere presence of another supportive individual, even without direct interaction, was found to reduce pain ratings in participants. This effect was observed in both cold pressor tasks and among fibromyalgia patients
The study explored whether merely activating the mental representation of a supportive other could reduce physical pain. Participants viewed photographs of their romantic partners during pain-inducing tasks. The results indicated that viewing a partner’s photograph significantly reduced pain ratings compared to viewing a photograph of a stranger or an object.
The pain-attenuating effects of viewing a partner’s photograph were comparable to holding the partner’s hand. This suggests that the mental representation of social support (through photographs) can be as effective as physical presence in reducing pain.
These findings support the notion that social support, whether physical or mental, can alleviate pain. This aligns with the idea of co-regulation of human nervous systems through empathic care and touch, which can decrease fear, overwhelm, and pain perception.
Hornstein, E. A., & Eisenberger, N. I. (2018). A social safety net: developing a model of social-support figures as prepared safety stimuli. Current directions in psychological science, 27(1), 25-31.
https://escholarship.org/content/qt16v07152/qt16v07152_noSplash_c69f50a3a90ad1bd491b800277b8c329.pdf
The presence of social-support figures, such as close friends and family members, is known to increase feelings of safety, reduce threat responses, and improve overall health. This aligns with the idea that humans are designed to support each other during times of stress and danger.
Social-support figures act as “prepared safety stimuli,” a special category of safety signals that can inhibit fear responses and alter fear-learning processes without needing specific training. This suggests an innate ability of humans to recognize and respond to social support as a form of safety.
The presence of social-support figures reduces the acquisition of fear and enhances the extinction of fear. This means that having a supportive person nearby can lower the initial fear response and help dissipate fear more quickly when faced with threats.
Social-support figures also help buffer against the experience of pain, reducing discomfort and pain-related neural activity. This effect has been observed both in laboratory settings and real-life situations, demonstrating the powerful impact of social connections on pain perception.
The beneficial effects of social support are partly mediated by increased activity in the ventromedial prefrontal cortex, a brain region involved in signaling safety and inhibiting threat-responsive areas like the amygdala. This neural mechanism helps explain why social support can diminish the acute experience of threats.
Social support not only mitigates fear and pain but also reduces overall psychological and physiological stress in response to negative events. This broad impact on mental and physical health underscores the importance of social connections in human well-being.
Eisenberger, N. I., Master, S. L., Inagaki, T. K., Taylor, S. E., Shirinyan, D., Lieberman, M. D., & Naliboff, B. D. (2011). Attachment figures activate a safety signal-related neural region and reduce pain experience. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 108(28), 11721-11726.
https://www.pnas.org/doi/full/10.1073/pnas.1108239108
Attachment figures, such as romantic partners, can act as safety signals during painful experiences. Viewing pictures of attachment figures while experiencing pain activates the ventromedial prefrontal cortex (VMPFC), a neural region associated with safety signaling, which reduces self-reported pain ratings and pain-related neural activity in regions such as the dorsal anterior cingulate cortex and anterior insula.
Social-support figures, as prepared safety stimuli, reduce fear acquisition and enhance fear extinction by inhibiting the fear response and altering basic fear-learning processes. This inhibition is linked to the release of endogenous opioids, suggesting that social-support figures can uniquely buffer against fear and pain.
The presence of social-support figures or reminders of them (e.g., images) during fear-inducing or painful situations prevents the formation of fear associations and promotes the extinction of existing fears. This effect is observed both immediately after and 24 hours post-extinction, indicating a powerful and lasting inhibitory effect on fear responses.
Social buffering, the reduction of behavioral and physiological responses to threats in the presence of companions, highlights the importance of social connections in mitigating stress and fear. This buffering effect extends to pain reduction, where social-support figures decrease discomfort and pain-related neural activity during painful events.
Studies have shown that social support, whether active (verbal or nonverbal encouragement) or passive (mere presence), can have an analgesic effect, increasing pain thresholds and tolerance. This effect underscores the role of social context in modulating pain perception.
The presence of familiar individuals, such as spouses during medical procedures, reduces the need for pain medication and facilitates faster recovery, demonstrating the practical benefits of social support in clinical settings.
López-Solà, M., Geuter, S., Koban, L., Coan, J. A., & Wager, T. D. (2019). Brain mechanisms of social touch-induced analgesia in females. Pain, 160(9), 2072-2085.
Holding a romantic partner’s hand during painful experiences significantly reduced pain intensity and unpleasantness compared to holding an inert device. This reduction was paralleled by increased emotional comfort.
Social touch, such as handholding, reduced activity in the Neurologic Pain Signature (NPS), a brain pattern sensitive to somatic pain, and increased connectivity between the NPS and both somatosensory and “default mode” regions. This suggests that touch not only affects the brain processes directly linked to pain but also engages broader neural networks associated with emotional and cognitive regulation.
The brain regions showing reduced activation during handholding included those targeted by primary nociceptive afferents (e.g., posterior insula, anterior cingulate cortex) and regions associated with affective value, meaning, and attentional regulation (e.g., orbitofrontal cortex, ventromedial prefrontal cortex).
Greater emotional comfort during handholding was associated with higher perceived relationship quality and greater perceived closeness with the romantic partner. This indicates that the quality of the social bond enhances the analgesic effects of touch.
The strongest mediators of touch-induced analgesia were reductions in activity within a brain circuit traditionally associated with stress and defensive behavior, including the ventromedial and dorsomedial prefrontal cortex, rostral anterior cingulate cortex, amygdala/hippocampus, hypothalamus, and periaqueductal gray matter. This suggests that social touch reduces the stress response during pain.
The analgesic effects of handholding were distinct from those observed with cognitive strategies like placebo or distraction, as handholding uniquely reduced NPS responses. This highlights the specific impact of social touch on nociceptive processing and stress-related brain responses.
Goldstein, P., Weissman-Fogel, I., Dumas, G., & Shamay-Tsoory, S. G. (2018). Brain-to-brain coupling during handholding is associated with pain reduction. Proceedings of the national academy of sciences, 115(11), E2528-E2537.
https://www.pnas.org/doi/pdf/10.1073/pnas.1703643115
The study found that holding a romantic partner’s hand during pain significantly reduced pain intensity. This reduction in pain was linked to increased brain-to-brain coupling between the partners.
Brain-to-brain coupling, especially in the alpha-mu band (8–12 Hz), was observed between the pain target (the person experiencing pain) and the observer (the person providing support through handholding). This coupling was stronger during handholding compared to conditions without touch or with the partner in a separate room.
The interbrain coupling involved central regions of the female partner (pain target) and the right hemisphere of the male partner (observer), indicating a neural synchronization that correlated with the magnitude of analgesia and the observer’s empathic accuracy.
Increased empathic accuracy in the observer was associated with greater pain relief in the target. This suggests that the observer’s ability to accurately perceive the partner’s pain contributes to the analgesic effect of handholding.
The study highlighted that emotional and physiological synchronization between partners during handholding contributes to pain reduction. This synchronization includes heart rate and respiration coupling, which are enhanced by high partner empathy and the analgesic effect of touch.
The findings support the biopsychosocial model of pain, which posits that pain perception is influenced by a dynamic interaction of biological, psychological, and social factors. Social touch (a social factor) helps share empathy (a psychological factor) with the pain target, resulting in analgesia accompanied by neurophysiological coupling (a biological factor).
The study suggests that being understood by the partner and experiencing synchrony activate the brain’s reward circuitry, which may contribute to pain relief. This is consistent with the idea that social understanding and empathy communicated through touch can enhance feelings of safety and comfort, reducing pain perception.
Duschek, S., Nassauer, L., Montoro, C. I., Bair, A., & Montoya, P. (2019). Dispositional empathy is associated with experimental pain reduction during provision of social support by romantic partners. Scandinavian journal of pain, 20(1), 205-209.
https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/sjpain-2019-0025/html
The study found that the mere presence of a romantic partner significantly increased pain threshold and tolerance while reducing sensory and affective pain ratings. This effect was observed without the need for verbal or physical interaction, demonstrating that passive social support can effectively alleviate pain.
Dispositional empathy in romantic partners was positively associated with pain tolerance and inversely associated with sensory pain experience. Participants with more empathetic partners exhibited a greater increase in pain tolerance and a larger reduction in sensory pain during their partner’s presence. This indicates that empathy plays a crucial role in modulating pain through social support.
The study suggests that the emotional modulation of pain experience is likely mediated by vicarious effects of pain observation and emotional contagion. Observing a partner’s pain can trigger negative feelings and similar states in the observer, leading to empathic feedback that diminishes distress and reduces pain sensitivity.
The ongoing experience of high partner empathy in everyday life may generalize to pain situations, where the mere presence of an empathetic partner can reduce distress and pain sensitivity even without active supportive feedback.
Women exhibited lower pain thresholds and tolerance and higher sensory and affective pain compared to men. However, the analgesic effect of partner presence and the role of empathy were consistent across genders, emphasizing the universal impact of empathetic social support on pain reduction.
While the study did not measure perceived social support directly, it highlights the importance of empathy and the potential impact of everyday empathetic interactions on pain perception. The findings support the use of interpersonal strategies in pain management, emphasizing the beneficial role of social support in reducing acute pain.
Peters, M. L. (2015). Emotional and cognitive influences on pain experience. Pain in psychiatric disorders, 30, 138-152.
Anxiety and fear significantly influence pain perception. Pain-related anxiety can increase pain sensitivity and exacerbate the pain experience, while fear of immediate threats can suppress pain to facilitate escape. This modulation occurs through brain interactions involving emotional and sensory areas.
Depression and other negative emotions are associated with increased pain perception. Induced depressed mood and clinical depression lead to higher pain sensitivity and increased activity in pain-related brain areas, suggesting that negative emotional states exacerbate pain.
Positive emotions generally decrease perceived pain. Inducing positive emotions in experimental settings has been shown to reduce pain sensitivity, likely due to both supraspinal and descending pain modulation mechanisms. Positive emotions may also protect against the development of chronic pain by reducing pain-related fear.
Optimism and positive affect are correlated with lower pain sensitivity and better pain management outcomes. These positive emotional states help buffer against the impact of pain on daily functioning and emotional distress, suggesting that fostering positive emotions can be beneficial for pain relief.
Attention plays a crucial role in pain perception. Focusing on pain increases its intensity, while distraction reduces it. Brain imaging studies show that distraction decreases activity in ascending pain pathways and increases activity in descending pain modulatory pathways.
Expectancies also significantly impact pain perception. Positive treatment expectancy can enhance analgesic effects, while negative expectancy can negate them. This effect is mediated by changes in brain activity related to pain modulation.
Catastrophizing, a cognitive style involving exaggerated negative thinking about pain, is linked to increased pain sensitivity and chronic pain development. It shares pathways with anxiety and attention, further emphasizing the complex interplay between cognitive processes and pain.
Platow, M. J., Voudouris, N. J., Coulson, M., Gilford, N., Jamieson, R., Najdovski, L., … & Terry, L. (2007). In‐group reassurance in a pain setting produces lower levels of physiological arousal: direct support for a self‐categorization analysis of social influence. European Journal of Social Psychology, 37(4), 649-660.
The study demonstrates that reassurance from in-group members (individuals perceived to be part of the same social group) significantly lowers physiological arousal in response to pain compared to reassurance from out-group members or no reassurance at all. This finding aligns with the concept that social support from empathic and familiar individuals can modulate pain perception and stress responses.
Participants who received reassurance from an in-group member showed lower galvanic skin response (GSR), indicating reduced physiological arousal during a painful task. This effect was not observed when the reassurance came from an out-group member or when no reassurance was provided. This suggests that in-group reassurance can effectively decrease the body’s stress response to pain.
The effectiveness of in-group reassurance was influenced by the level of social identification with the group. Participants who strongly identified with their social group (science students in this case) showed a greater reduction in physiological arousal when reassured by an in-group member. This highlights the importance of social bonds and group identity in modulating pain and stress responses.
The study supports self-categorization theory, which posits that individuals are more influenced by those they perceive as belonging to the same social group. In the context of pain, this means that reassurance and support from in-group members are more effective in reducing stress and pain responses than similar input from out-group members.
These findings suggest that social support interventions for pain management could be more effective if they involve individuals who share a strong social bond or group identity with the person experiencing pain. Empathic care and touch from such individuals can play a crucial role in reducing the perception of pain, fear, and overwhelm.
Floyd, K., Ray, C. D., van Raalte, L. J., Stein, J. B., & Generous, M. A. (2018). Interpersonal touch buffers pain sensitivity in romantic relationships but heightens sensitivity between strangers and friends. Research in Psychology and Behavioral Sciences, 6(1), 27-34.
https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/4861/78bb3b3293d9c19f091fd4c1e4efdae904b7.pdf
The study found that interpersonal touch significantly reduces pain sensitivity for individuals when the touch is from a romantic partner. Participants were able to tolerate higher levels of pain intensity before identifying the stimulus as painful when touched by a romantic partner, compared to when the partner was merely present or absent.
This indicates that touch from a loved one can create a sense of safety and comfort, which likely activates neurological and biochemical pathways that reduce the perception of pain.
Interestingly, touch from friends or strangers had the opposite effect, increasing pain sensitivity. Participants reported lower pain thresholds when touched by a friend or stranger, compared to when they were alone or merely in the presence of these individuals without being touched.
This finding underscores the importance of the relational context in which touch occurs, suggesting that not all forms of touch are equally beneficial and that the emotional bond plays a crucial role in the effectiveness of touch as a means of pain alleviation.
The study also highlighted gender differences in pain sensitivity related to touch. Women exhibited the highest pain tolerance when they were alone, while touch increased their pain sensitivity. In contrast, men showed the highest pain tolerance when a partner was present, with or without touch.
These findings suggest that the impact of touch on pain sensitivity may be influenced by gender, potentially due to differing socialization patterns and physiological responses.
Sambo, C. F., Howard, M., Kopelman, M., Williams, S., & Fotopoulou, A. (2010). Knowing you care: effects of perceived empathy and attachment style on pain perception. PAIN®, 151(3), 687-693.
The study found that the social presence and perceived empathy of observers significantly affected participants’ pain ratings and physiological responses to pain. Participants experienced lower pain ratings and decreased autonomic responses (such as heart rate) when they perceived the observer as empathetic compared to when the observer was perceived as low-empathy or when they were alone.
The effects of social presence and perceived empathy on pain were modulated by individual differences in attachment style. Specifically, participants with higher attachment anxiety reported higher pain ratings in the low-empathy condition compared to the high-empathy condition. Conversely, those with higher attachment avoidance reported lower pain ratings when alone compared to when in the presence of an observer.
Social presence decreased autonomic responses to pain regardless of individual personality traits, indicating a general calming effect of having someone present during painful experiences.
The knowledge that an observer understood and shared their pain (perceived empathy) helped reduce the subjective experience of pain. This effect was particularly pronounced in participants who scored high on attachment anxiety, suggesting that empathetic support is especially beneficial for individuals who are more anxious about social relationships.
The study used noxious thermal stimuli to induce pain and measured participants’ pain ratings and physiological responses under three conditions: high-empathy observer, low-empathy observer, and alone. The empathy levels of the observers were manipulated by providing false feedback to participants about the observers’ reported empathy during pre-experimental procedures.
Coan, J. A., Schaefer, H. S., & Davidson, R. J. (2006). Lending a hand: Social regulation of the neural response to threat. Psychological science, 17(12), 1032-1039.
https://perpus.univpancasila.ac.id/repository/EBUPT190480.pdf#page=514
Social contact, such as hand-holding, plays a crucial role in regulating emotional responses to stress. The study demonstrated that social contact can significantly attenuate neural responses to threats, thereby reducing fear and anxiety.
The study involved 16 married women who were subjected to the threat of electric shock under three conditions: holding their husband’s hand, holding a stranger’s hand, or no hand-holding. The results showed that holding their husband’s hand led to a pervasive reduction in activation of neural systems associated with emotional and behavioral threat responses. This attenuation was less pronounced when holding a stranger’s hand.
The effects of spousal hand-holding on neural threat responses were influenced by the quality of the marital relationship. Higher marital quality predicted greater reductions in threat-related neural activation, indicating that the emotional bond and quality of the relationship enhance the calming effect of touch.
The study identified specific brain regions where threat-related activation was reduced during hand-holding. These included areas associated with emotional regulation and stress responses, such as the right anterior insula, superior frontal gyrus, and hypothalamus. The reductions were more significant during spousal hand-holding compared to holding a stranger’s hand or no hand at all.
The research supports the broader notion that social bonding and soothing behaviors mitigate the negative effects of environmental stressors. This aligns with the idea that God created human nervous systems to co-regulate with one another, providing emotional support and reducing feelings of fear, overwhelm, and pain through interpersonal connections.
Sailer, U., & Leknes, S. (2022). Meaning makes touch affective. Current Opinion in Behavioral Sciences, 44, 101099.
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2352154621002023
The affective value of touch is determined by how well its perceived purpose matches the goals of the touch receiver. When the purpose of touch aligns with the receiver’s goals, the touch is perceived as more pleasant and supportive. This highlights the importance of context and intention in the perception of touch.
The context in which touch occurs plays a significant role in its affective value. Touch intended to signal affection, support, or comfort in a meaningful context (e.g., comforting a grieving friend) can have a soothing effect on the receiver. Conversely, the same touch in a different context (e.g., from a stranger or in a neutral setting) may not have the same positive impact.
Individual factors such as previous experiences, attachment styles, and current emotional states influence how touch is perceived. For example, individuals with secure attachment styles may find affectionate touch more comforting and stress-reducing compared to those with insecure attachment styles.
The study emphasizes that both top-down (cognitive and emotional interpretations) and bottom-up (sensory input) processes contribute to the perception of touch. The perceived meaning of touch can override the intrinsic affective value of the sensory input, making it essential to consider the receiver’s psychological state and context.
Predictive processing models suggest that prior knowledge and expectations shape the perception of touch. The brain anticipates the meaning of touch based on previous experiences and the current context, which can influence the emotional response to touch. This aligns with the idea that understanding and empathy can enhance the positive effects of touch.
Touch that communicates affection, support, and care helps maintain social bonds and promotes a sense of security and inclusion in a social group. This social bonding is beneficial for health and well-being, underscoring the importance of touch in human interactions.
Kreuder, A. K., Wassermann, L., Wollseifer, M., Ditzen, B., Eckstein, M., Stoffel‐Wagner, B., … & Scheele, D. (2019). Oxytocin enhances the pain‐relieving effects of social support in romantic couples. Human brain mapping, 40(1), 242-251.
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6865468/
The study found that receiving social support from a romantic partner significantly reduced the unpleasantness of pain caused by electric shocks. This effect was more pronounced than when support was provided by a stranger or when no support was given.
Social support from a partner led to reduced pain-related neural activity in the anterior insula (AI), a brain region associated with the emotional processing of pain.
Oxytocin (OXT), a neuropeptide known for its role in social bonding, was found to enhance the pain-relieving effects of partner support. Participants who received intranasal oxytocin reported even lower unpleasantness ratings for pain when supported by their partner.
On a neural level, oxytocin augmented the effects of partner support by further decreasing activity in the anterior insula and increasing activity in the middle frontal gyrus (MFG), which is associated with cognitive control and pain inhibition.
Oxytocin also increased the functional connectivity between the anterior insula and the middle frontal gyrus, as well as between the middle frontal gyrus and the amygdala during partner support. This enhanced connectivity is indicative of better top-down modulation of pain.
The positive effects of oxytocin on pain relief were more pronounced in participants with higher levels of romantic love, suggesting that the quality of the relationship influences the effectiveness of social support and oxytocin in pain relief.
Women showed greater neural activity in the ventromedial prefrontal cortex (VMPFC) and amygdala when receiving partner support compared to stranger support, indicating sex-specific responses in the brain to social support and oxytocin.
Mazza, A., Ciorli, T., Mirlisenna, I., D’Onofrio, I., Mantellino, S., Zaccaria, M., … & Dal Monte, O. (2023). Pain perception and physiological responses are modulated by active support from a romantic partner. Psychophysiology, 60(9), e14299.
https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdfdirect/10.1111/psyp.14299
The study found that active support (supportive touch, supportive speaking, or a combination of both) from a romantic partner significantly reduced pain perception compared to passive support (mere presence). This reduction was observed both in subjective pain ratings and physiological responses (skin conductance).
All forms of active support (touch, voice, touch + voice) were equally effective in reducing pain perception and physiological arousal. There was no significant difference in pain modulation between the different types of active support, indicating that the specific modality of support is less important than the act of providing active support itself.
The quality of the romantic relationship played a crucial role in the effectiveness of social support. Higher relationship quality was associated with greater perceived support and lower pain ratings during the experiment. This suggests that the emotional bond between partners enhances the pain-relieving effects of support.
Active support from a romantic partner resulted in lower skin conductance responses, reflecting reduced autonomic arousal. This physiological evidence supports the subjective reports of decreased pain perception.
The study highlighted that vocal support alone can significantly reduce pain perception, demonstrating that non-physical forms of support are also effective. Gentle, supportive speaking from a partner was found to be as effective as tactile support in alleviating pain.
Tracy, L. M. (2017). Psychosocial factors and their influence on the experience of pain. Pain reports, 2(4), e602.
The presence of a friend or romantic partner during pain-inducing tasks increased both pain threshold (the point at which pain is first perceived) and pain tolerance (the point at which pain becomes intolerable). This indicates that social presence can enhance one’s ability to endure pain.
The study found that the sex of the observer influenced pain experiences differently. For male participants, having a male friend present had the most significant effect on increasing pain threshold and tolerance. This suggests that social and cultural factors, such as the tendency for men to display stoicism in front of male peers, can modulate pain experiences.
Female participants were generally more willing to communicate their pain experiences, which may be related to higher levels of positive social support and intimacy typically found in female friendships.
The study highlighted the role of psychosocial traits such as pain catastrophizing (an exaggerated negative response to pain) and fear of pain in influencing pain experiences. Individuals with high levels of catastrophizing or fear of pain were found to have increased pain sensitivity. The presence of a supportive friend or family member could help modulate these effects, potentially reducing pain perception in such individuals.
Empathy plays a crucial role in the analgesic effects of social support. Knowing that a friend is nearby or providing support can elicit empathic responses that help alleviate the distress associated with pain. This supports the idea that empathic care can effectively reduce pain.
Previous research has shown that females tend to have higher trait empathy and are more likely to display nurturing behaviors in social relationships. The study found that females generally experienced stronger social support effects, potentially due to higher levels of empathy.
Sturgeon, J. A., & Zautra, A. J. (2016). Social pain and physical pain: shared paths to resilience. Pain management, 6(1), 63-74.
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4869967/?trk=public_post_comment-text
The article highlights that physical and social pain share common neural pathways, including regions such as the dorsal anterior cingulate cortex and ventral prefrontal cortex. These areas are activated during both physical pain and socially painful experiences like rejection or loss. This neural overlap suggests that our brains process social and physical pain similarly, emphasizing the importance of social connections in managing pain.
Social support is a critical factor in pain management. Positive social interactions and relationships can significantly reduce pain intensity and improve coping mechanisms. The presence of supportive individuals can lower pain perception and enhance psychological resilience. This aligns with the concept of “bearing one another’s burdens” through empathic care and touch.
Positive emotions, often fostered by social interactions, play a crucial role in pain adaptation. These emotions can reduce pain intensity, promote adaptive cognitive responses, and enhance overall well-being. This finding underscores the importance of social bonds and emotional support in managing pain.
The article suggests that social pain, like physical pain, may serve an adaptive function. Experiencing social pain drives humans to maintain social bonds and seek support, which are essential for survival. This perspective supports the idea that human nervous systems are designed to co-regulate and support each other.
Interventions that enhance social intelligence and foster positive social relationships can significantly improve pain management and emotional well-being. These interventions demonstrate the practical application of leveraging social support to alleviate pain and stress.
Kross, E., Berman, M. G., Mischel, W., Smith, E. E., & Wager, T. D. (2011). Social rejection shares somatosensory representations with physical pain. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 108(15), 6270-6275.
https://www.pnas.org/doi/full/10.1073/pnas.1102693108
The study found that social rejection activates brain regions associated with the sensory components of physical pain, such as the secondary somatosensory cortex (S2) and the dorsal posterior insula (dpINS). These regions are typically involved in processing the physical sensation of pain.
This overlap suggests that social rejection and physical pain share common neural pathways, indicating that the distress caused by social rejection can be as real and tangible as physical pain.
Both social rejection and physical pain activated brain regions associated with the affective component of pain, such as the dorsal anterior cingulate cortex (dACC) and the anterior insula (AI). These areas are linked to the emotional experience of pain, reinforcing the idea that emotional distress from social rejection can manifest similarly to physical pain.
The study emphasized that the intensity of the social rejection experience is crucial for activating these pain-related brain regions. Participants who had recently experienced a painful romantic breakup showed significant activation in these areas when thinking about their rejection, highlighting that strong emotional distress can trigger physical pain responses in the brain.
The research indicates that somatosensory processing is integral to the experience of both social and physical pain. This finding supports the idea that emotional and physical pain are deeply interconnected, and that social experiences can influence physical sensations and vice versa.
The overlap between social and physical pain processing in the brain provides insights into how social rejection can contribute to physical pain disorders, such as somatoform disorders and fibromyalgia. This suggests that social support and interventions targeting emotional well-being could be beneficial in managing chronic pain conditions.
Holt-Lunstad, J., Smith, T. B., & Layton, J. B. (2010). Social relationships and mortality risk: a meta-analytic review. PLoS medicine, 7(7), e1000316.
The study found that individuals with stronger social relationships had a 50% increased likelihood of survival compared to those with weaker social relationships. This suggests that social connections are crucial for survival and overall well-being.
The influence of social relationships on mortality risk was found to be comparable to well-established risk factors such as smoking and alcohol consumption. This highlights the profound impact social interactions have on health.
The analysis differentiated between structural aspects (e.g., social integration, living arrangements) and functional aspects (e.g., received and perceived support). It found that complex measures of social integration were associated with a larger effect size, indicating that integrated social networks significantly contribute to reduced mortality risk.
The study supports the buffering hypothesis, which posits that social relationships provide resources that help individuals cope with stress, thereby reducing the negative impact of stress on health. The main effects model also suggests that social relationships directly promote health through emotional, cognitive, behavioral, and biological mechanisms.
Social integration, which involves participation in a broad range of social activities and relationships, was found to be the most predictive of reduced mortality risk. This underscores the importance of being actively engaged in a supportive social network.
Social relationships were linked to better health practices and psychological processes such as reduced stress and depression, which in turn influence physical health outcomes. This highlights the interconnectedness of social and physical health.
Roberts, M. H., Klatzkin, R. R., & Mechlin, B. (2015). Social support attenuates physiological stress responses and experimental pain sensitivity to cold pressor pain. Annals of Behavioral Medicine, 49(4), 557-569.
The study demonstrated that participants who received social support during a cold pressor task (CPT) exhibited significantly lower blood pressure, heart rate, and cortisol reactivity compared to those in neutral non-support or alone conditions. This indicates that social support can effectively attenuate physiological stress responses.
Both active (verbal) and passive (non-verbal) social support were shown to reduce pain perception, suggesting that the mere perception of being supported or the presence of another person can be critical in pain attenuation. This aligns with the notion that social interactions and the perception of empathy can mitigate pain.
The study highlighted that social support not only influences subjective pain ratings but also impacts physiological markers such as cortisol levels. This suggests a holistic effect of social interactions on both psychological and physical aspects of pain and stress.
Given the negative health consequences of stress and pain, incorporating social support into medical procedures and treatments could be beneficial. This reinforces the idea that human beings are inherently designed to support and regulate each other’s emotional and physical well-being through social bonds and touch.
The presence of a supportive individual was associated with increased activation in brain regions related to safety signaling and fear extinction, which are crucial for reducing the perceived threat of painful stimuli. This neurobiological evidence supports the concept of co-regulation and the therapeutic benefits of empathic care and touch.
Sheykhasadi, H., Abbaszadeh, A., Bonakdar, H., Salmani, F., Tavan, A., & Sedri, N. (2019). The effect of distraction with a loved one’s voice on pain reduction while extracting the chest tube after open heart surgery. The Open Pain Journal, 12(1).
https://benthamopen.com/ABSTRACT/TOPAINJ-12-6
The study showed that listening to a loved one’s voice significantly reduced pain during chest tube removal after open heart surgery. Patients who listened to a recorded voice of a loved one experienced lower pain levels compared to those who did not receive this intervention.
Pain levels were measured before, immediately after, and ten minutes after the chest tube removal using the Visual Analog Scale (VAS). The results indicated no significant difference in pain levels before the procedure between the intervention and control groups. However, there was a significant reduction in pain during and after the procedure in the intervention group compared to the control group.
The study found that non-pharmacological interventions, such as the distraction provided by a loved one’s voice, can offer significant benefits, including enhanced self-control, reduced feelings of weakness, increased functional capacity, and reduced need for analgesics. These benefits contribute to overall better pain management and lower physiological stress responses.
The comforting effect of a familiar and empathetic voice highlights the importance of emotional support in pain management. This aligns with the concept of bearing one another’s burdens through empathic care, which can alleviate pain and reduce stress.
The findings suggest that incorporating non-pharmacological methods like listening to a loved one’s voice can be an effective, low-cost, and easily implementable strategy in clinical settings to enhance patient comfort and pain relief during invasive procedures.
Goldstein, P., Weissman-Fogel, I., & Shamay-Tsoory, S. G. (2017). The role of touch in regulating inter-partner physiological coupling during empathy for pain. Scientific reports, 7(1), 3252.
https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-017-03627-7
The study found that touch increased inter-partner physiological coupling, both in terms of respiration and heart rate. This coupling was more pronounced during pain conditions when partners held hands compared to when they did not touch or were alone. This indicates that touch enhances physiological synchronization between partners.
High levels of partner empathy and higher analgesic effects were associated with increased physiological coupling during touch. Empathic accuracy (the ability of the observer to accurately perceive the pain level of the partner) and trait empathy were significant moderators of this coupling, suggesting that empathy enhances the effectiveness of touch in pain relief.
Touch significantly reduced the pain ratings of participants. Women reported lower pain levels when their partners held their hands during painful stimuli compared to when no touch was involved. This highlights the analgesic effect of touch in romantic relationships.
The study suggests that the effects of touch on inter-partner physiological coupling may contribute to its analgesic effects via the autonomic nervous system. Touch likely helps regulate physiological responses to pain, thereby reducing the perception of pain and stress.
The study focused on heterosexual romantic couples, with men as observers and women as pain targets. The findings showed that touch was particularly effective in reducing women’s pain and enhancing physiological coupling, emphasizing the importance of partner support in pain management.
von Mohr, M., Krahé, C., Beck, B., & Fotopoulou, A. (2018). The social buffering of pain by affective touch: a laser-evoked potential study in romantic couples. Social cognitive and affective neuroscience, 13(11), 1121-1130.
https://academic.oup.com/scan/article/13/11/1121/5106208
The study demonstrated that affective touch, characterized by slow and gentle stroking, from a romantic partner significantly reduced subjective pain ratings. This indicates that such touch provides a calming and pain-relieving effect.
Affective touch not only reduced pain perception but also attenuated pain-related neural responses at both early (N1) and later (N2-P2) stages of cortical processing. This shows that the touch has a profound impact on how the brain processes pain.
Although adult attachment style did not directly affect neural responses to pain, attachment anxiety moderated the effect on pain ratings. This suggests that the emotional bond between partners influences how supportive touch is perceived and its effectiveness in pain relief.
The study highlights the importance of social and emotional context in pain modulation. The presence and active involvement of a partner through touch convey emotional support and safety, which are critical in reducing the experience of pain.
Krahé, C., Springer, A., Weinman, J. A., & Fotopoulou, A. (2013). The social modulation of pain: others as predictive signals of salience–a systematic review. Frontiers in human neuroscience, 7, 386.
https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fnhum.2013.00386/full
The review identifies that interpersonal factors such as the presence, behavior, and spatial proximity of others can significantly modulate pain perception. The effectiveness of these factors depends on the perceived ability of the social partner to act and their specific intentions.
The type of pre-existing relationship between the person in pain and the social partner plays a crucial role in pain modulation. Close and supportive relationships tend to be more effective in reducing pain perception compared to neutral or negative relationships.
Individual differences, such as coping styles and ways of relating to others, influence how social interactions affect pain. For instance, people with higher levels of empathy and secure attachment styles are more likely to benefit from social support during painful experiences.
The review proposes that the modulation of pain by social factors can be understood through the predictive coding model. Interpersonal interactions during pain may function as social predictive signals of contextual threat or safety, influencing the salience of noxious stimuli. This model suggests that our brains use prior beliefs about social interactions to predict and modulate pain experiences.
The integration of cognitive and social contextual factors into the perception of pain highlights the importance of psychosocial mechanisms. These mechanisms involve both top-down influences (e.g., expectations, beliefs) and bottom-up processes (e.g., nociception), showing that social interactions can have a profound impact on pain perception and related physiological responses.
Reddan, M. C., Young, H., Falkner, J., López-Solà, M., & Wager, T. D. (2020). Touch and social support influence interpersonal synchrony and pain. Social cognitive and affective neuroscience, 15(10), 1064-1075.
https://academic.oup.com/scan/article/15/10/1064/5821245
The study found that social support from a romantic partner, including passive presence, gentle stroking, and handholding, significantly reduced pain ratings in women. Men did not show a significant reduction in pain ratings, but both genders exhibited reduced pain-related physiological responses when receiving social support.
Social support led to increased physiological synchrony (measured through skin conductance responses, SCR) between partners. This synchrony was correlated with reductions in self-reported pain, indicating that shared physiological states contribute to pain relief.
Among the types of social support, handholding showed the largest effects in reducing pain-related SCRs and promoting physiological synchrony. This suggests that physical touch, especially handholding, plays a critical role in alleviating pain through social bonding mechanisms.
The study also found that supportive touch, particularly handholding, reduced pain-related SCRs in the supportive partner, indicating that providing support also benefits the supporter by lowering their stress-related physiological responses.
In a re-analysis of brain activity data, increased activity in brain regions associated with valuation and somatic sensation (e.g., nucleus accumbens, ventral striatum, primary somatosensory cortex) was correlated with lower pain ratings during handholding. This suggests that social support modifies the neural processing of pain, likely through enhanced valuation of the supportive context.
Individual differences, such as comfort with interpersonal touch and empathy, influenced the effectiveness of social support. Those with higher empathy and positive attitudes towards touch experienced greater pain relief and higher physiological synchrony during supportive interactions.
Younger, J., Aron, A., Parke, S., Chatterjee, N., & Mackey, S. (2010). Viewing pictures of a romantic partner reduces experimental pain: involvement of neural reward systems. PloS one, 5(10), e13309.
https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0013309
The study found that viewing pictures of a romantic partner significantly reduced self-reported pain. This analgesic effect was associated with increased activity in several reward-processing regions of the brain, including the caudate head, nucleus accumbens, lateral orbitofrontal cortex, amygdala, and dorsolateral prefrontal cortex.
Unlike the distraction task, which also reduced pain but did not engage reward systems as significantly, viewing romantic partner pictures specifically activated reward-related regions. This suggests that emotional and relational cues can engage the brain’s reward systems to modulate pain perception.
The analgesic effect of viewing romantic partner pictures was also associated with suppressed activity in pain-processing regions, such as the anterior insula and brainstem (sensory aspects), the putamen, hippocampus, and anterior cingulate cortex (affective aspects), and the supplementary motor area and superior frontal gyrus (cognitive aspects). This indicates a comprehensive reduction in pain processing at multiple levels of the neural response network.
The study highlighted that reward system activation might suppress nociceptive processing early in the pain pathway. This suppression involves projections from reward regions to pain modulatory systems, inhibiting pain signals at the spinal level. This mechanism underscores the potential evolutionary advantage of reduced pain perception in the context of rewarding social interactions, supporting the idea of co-regulation through empathic relationships.
The phenomenon of pain reduction through viewing romantic partner pictures was observed across different cultural contexts, suggesting a universal neural mechanism by which emotional bonds influence pain perception.
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